Long-term Economic Consequences of Sexual Assault

3 NOVEMBER 2019

In the U.S., about one in five women and one in 71 men experience sexual assault at some point in their lives (Black et al., 2011). The prevalence of sexual assault is particularly high on college campuses, with one in four women and about 6% of men (Cantor et al., 2015). While research on social, educational, and mental health consequences of sexual assault on victims is prevalent, the economic consequences resulting from intangible costs have received little attention. Monetizing such consequences is significant for its ability to draw attention and spark societal change through improved policies, compensation, and prevention education that shift the burden from the victim to the state. Rape costs the U.S. more than any other crime, at $127 billion (Miller, Cohen, & Wiersema, 1996); the economic costs per person amount to a lifetime income loss of $241,600 (Loya, 2015; MacMillan, 2000). The hidden and overlooked economic consequences for survivors of sexual assault not only impact the survivors’ long-term economic trajectories but also increase costs borne by society.

The economic costs of sexual assault monetize both tangible and intangible costs. For instance, the value of time lost due to dealing with the aftermath of a sexual assault translates into hours that would have been spent working a job, resulting in an average of $69 lost per day (Loya, 2015). At a workshop on the social and economic costs of sexual violence, speaker Phaedra Corso split the expenses into three categories: medical, nonmedical, and lost productivity. Medical expenses include out-of-pocket expenses (individual), costs borne by family members, costs of local care (community), and costs of health insurance and criminal justice services (societal). Productivity costs come in two forms: “absenteeism,” the loss of hours at work that reduce income and community contributions, and “presenteeism,” the victim’s inability to work at full capacity while on the job. Finally, nonmedical costs include lost tuition, property damage, and other nonmedical services (Institute of Medicine [IOM] & National Research Council [NRC], 2012). Miller et al. (1996) estimated that these tangible losses amount to $5,100 in 1993 dollars ($9,062.08 in 2019 USD) for each sexual assault, while the lost quality of life calculated based on jury awards for pain and suffering costs $81,400 in 1993 dollars ($144,637.94 in 2019 USD). Altogether, Miller et al.'s estimated cost per victimization arrives at an alarming $153,700 in 2019 USD.

The long-term impacts on a victim of sexual assault comprises three categories: education, career, and health (Potter, Howard, Murphy, & Moynihan, 2018). In Potter et al.'s study of 89 survivors assaulted in college, 67% of survivors reported facing academic challenges due to the assault, such as drops in grade point average (GPA), lower rates of attendance, and decreased confidence in academic abilities. In another study, 10.6% of participants who experienced sexual assault had a GPA below 2.5 the semester following the assault, compared to 3% for non-survivor participants (Jordan, Combs, & Smith, 2014). These outcomes align with past research demonstrating that survivors in college often experience behavioral changes following an assault, including lost motivation to attend or participate in a class and avoidance of buildings they associate with the assault or perpetrator (Mengo & Black, 2015). 58% of participants in Potter et al.’s study also reported consequent interruption in education trajectories by transferring, taking a semester off, forgoing post-graduate education plans, or dropping out entirely. Compared to the 59% of U.S. college students who graduate within six years of enrolling, only 35.8% of study participants completed the degree without interruption (Potter et al., 2018). However, some survivors had positive academic outcomes following the assault. According to the researchers, these survivors focused on academics as a coping mechanism to avoid thinking about the assault and avoid social situations with any risk of assault.

Furthermore, the amount of time survivors spend seeking help from the university is roughly equivalent to a four-credit course, translating to a fourth of the semester’s tuition lost (Karns, 2019). Potter et al. (2018) found that, compounded with the time spent on intrusive thoughts, counseling services, and other ramifications, many survivors faced economic consequences not only during college but also after graduation. These survivors attributed the assault to their decreased ambition or confidence, resulting in lower labor market achievements.

Victims in the workplace also face negative impacts on their careers, such as underachievement, workforce performance, and safety limitations (i.e., fears or triggers). Survivors' underachievement results from lost self-esteem or stalled education goals, leading to shifted career trajectories for which individuals are overqualified and undercompensated. In the workforce, 74% of survivors fail to meet job expectations due to lingering trauma, regularly miss work or show up late due to new mental and physical problems, or develop habits of substance abuse (Langton & Truman, 2014; Potter et al., 2018). Given such after-effects, women who experienced recent sexual or physical violence are twice as likely to be unemployed than women who did not, while women who were already unemployed face even stronger consequences. Furthermore, survivors face long-term career barriers due to safety limitations, or fears and triggers stemming from the assault (Potter et al., 2018). As survivors unconsciously create negative associations with the identity groups of their perpetrators, they end up avoiding or leaving jobs where they have to interact with potentially threatening individuals. For instance, a female survivor assaulted by her former male supervisor reported feeling more threatened by her new male supervisor's subtle sexual harassment, causing her to change jobs again (Potter et al., 2018). As the effects accumulate, one-third of survivors never economically recover from the assault as they settle for jobs with lower income and prestige, do not get promoted, or become unemployed (Loya, 2015).

Finally, sexual assault also has significant impacts on physical, mental, and reproductive health. In Potter et al.'s study (2018), only 8.6% of surveyed survivors reported no significant change in their health. Physical health impacts consisted of injuries during the assault and problems that arise after the incident, such as chronic gastrointestinal issues. The majority of participants (72.8%) reported significant new mental health issues, including insomnia, depression, anxiety, suicidality, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Reproductive health outcomes included testing and treatment of STIs, unwanted pregnancy, burdens of disclosure to intimate partners, and avoiding medical practitioners who have to make physical contact with patients (Potter et al., 2018). All such health impacts not only come with tangible medical expenses but also induce academic or career repercussions, spiraling into a self-perpetuating cycle of economic consequences.

Though the aforementioned consequences are felt most by the victim, there are also economic impacts on their significant others (e.g., family, friends, teachers), employers, and society. The victim's parents often bear the financial costs and even take sabbaticals for their mental health concerns or to support their child. The victim's siblings, particularly students, often see counselors, perform poorly in classes, and take time off from extracurriculars or sports (Loya, 2015). At large, the survivor’s presenteeism or absenteeism in the workplace causes employee turnover and reduced productivity, ultimately inducing societal opportunity costs from the victim's lost potential contributions (i.e., missed career opportunities). Altogether, the estimated lifetime cost of rape comes to $3.1 trillion for all victims in the U.S. (Peterson et al., 2017). Economic burden estimates include medical expenses (39% of total), lost work productivity among victims and perpetrators (52%), criminal justice activities (8%), and other costs such as victim property loss (1%). Government sources pay for criminal justice and medical costs, amounting to nearly a third of the total economic burden.

These economic consequences of sexual assault can be eliminated with improved policies, comprehensive education programs, and stricter perpetrator punishments. Hence, additional research on accurate measurement of cost impacts should be done to raise public perceptions of sexual violence as a public health issue rather than a distant, individual issue. 

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References

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